- Global environmental issues impose disproportionate burdens on Pakistan undermining development and exacerbating inequality issues
- Bridging finance gaps and honoring Paris Agreement commitments could forge a resilient path forward
Pakistan, with a population exceeding 240 million and ranking as the world’s fifth most populous nation, stands among the most vulnerable countries to global environmental challenges despite contributing less than 1% to global greenhouse gas emissions. Global phenomena such as rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, sea-level rise, and biodiversity loss — driven primarily by emissions from industrialized nations — manifest acutely in Pakistan through intensified floods, droughts, glacier melt, air pollution, water scarcity, and ecosystem degradation.
According to the Global Climate Risk Index, Pakistan has consistently ranked in the top 10 most affected countries over the past two decades, often placing fifth or higher in vulnerability assessments.
The country’s geography amplifies these impacts: the Indus River Basin sustains 80% of its agriculture, while the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalayan (HKH) glaciers — holding the third-largest ice mass outside the polar regions — feed this vital waterway. Climate models project that glaciers in the region are melting 65% faster than in previous decades, creating over 3,000 glacial lakes, with dozens at risk of outburst floods. Concurrently, deforestation rates — among the highest in Asia at 0.2-0.5% annually — exacerbate soil erosion and reduce natural buffers against disasters.
Agriculture, contributing approximately 24% to GDP and employing over 37% of the workforce, bears the brunt of these changes, with losses from extreme events threatening food security for millions. Urban centers like Lahore and Karachi face hazardous air pollution, with AQI levels frequently exceeding 300, while coastal areas contend with erosion and salinization. This article examines these interconnected impacts, drawing on verifiable data from sources including the World Bank, IMF, Germanwatch, UNDP, and Pakistan’s official surveys, to underscore the urgent need for adaptive strategies and international support.
Extreme Weather Events: Floods and Droughts
Pakistan’s vulnerability to extreme weather is epitomized by recurring floods and droughts, intensified by climate change. The 2022 floods, described as a “monsoon on steroids” by UN Secretary-General António Guterres, submerged one-third of the country, affecting 33 million people, killing over 1,700, and causing damages estimated at $30-40 billion. Agricultural losses alone exceeded $13 billion, with 8 million acres of crops destroyed.
In 2025, successive disasters continued: mid-year floods displaced millions, damaged infrastructure, and triggered flash floods in regions like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. Compound events — droughts followed by intense rains — have become common, with shifts from prolonged dry spells to torrential downpours indicating altered climate patterns.
Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) pose an escalating threat. Pakistan hosts over 7,000 glaciers and more than 3,000 glacial lakes, 33 of which are deemed high-risk. Accelerated melting — driven by temperatures rising faster than global averages — has led to outbursts spiking from 14 (2018-2021) to 75 in 2022 alone. These events devastate downstream communities, eroding soil and contaminating water sources.
Droughts compound the crisis, particularly in Thar and Balochistan, where water scarcity affects livelihoods. The alternation between floods and droughts disrupts agricultural cycles, reducing yields and exacerbating food insecurity.
Glacier Melt and Water Security
The HKH region, often called the “Third Pole,” supplies water to the Indus River, which irrigates 90% of Pakistan’s farmland. However, glaciers are retreating rapidly: studies indicate ice loss accelerating, with projections of up to 60-80% volume reduction by 2100 under high-emissions scenarios. In Pakistan’s Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, melt rates — previously slower — have begun accelerating.
This melt initially increases river flows but portends long-term scarcity as glaciers diminish. The Indus Basin, the world’s second most overstressed aquifer, faces overdraft, with groundwater depletion exacerbating surface water shortages. Per capita availability has fallen below 1,000 cubic meters, classifying Pakistan as water-scarce.
Urban water stress is acute: Karachi, home to over 16 million, relies on dwindling supplies amid salinization from sea intrusion.
Air Pollution and Urban Health Crises
Air pollution ranks among Pakistan’s gravest environmental health threats. In 2024, the country’s average PM2.5 concentration was 73.7 µg/m³ — nearly 15 times the WHO guideline — making it the third most polluted globally. Cities like Lahore frequently top global rankings, with AQI exceeding 500 (hazardous) in winter 2025, driven by vehicular emissions, industrial activity, crop burning, and transboundary smog.
Karachi ranks among the top 10 most polluted major cities. Pollution causes respiratory diseases, with estimates linking it to premature deaths comparable to tobacco smoking.
Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Vulnerability
Pakistan’s 990-1,120 km coastline faces rising seas at 1.1-1.9 mm/year, accelerated by subsidence in the Indus Delta. Projections indicate inundation risks for low-lying areas, with Karachi vulnerable to erosion and flooding. Mangrove loss — critical for coastal defense — worsens impacts, threatening fisheries and displacing communities.
Deforestation and Biodiversity Loss
Forest cover is critically low at under 5-6%, with annual losses of 27,000-41,000 hectares. Deforestation drives soil erosion, reduced rainfall, and habitat loss. Biodiversity hotspots suffer: over 44 mammal species are threatened, including snow leopards, Indus dolphins, and markhors. Endemic species face extinction risks from habitat fragmentation and poaching.
Impacts on Agriculture and Economy
Agriculture’s GDP share hovers at 19-24%, but climate shocks erode gains. The 2022 floods contracted growth; projections warn of 4.5-9% GDP loss by 2050. Crop yields decline due to erratic monsoons, heatwaves, and pests, threatening food security.
Health and Social Consequences
Climate events spread diseases: post-2022 floods saw malaria cases quadruple. Heatwaves, pollution, and waterborne illnesses burden healthcare, disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups.
Policy Responses and International Aid
Pakistan’s National Climate Change Policy (2021) and updated NDCs (2021, 2025) target 60% renewable energy by 2030 and ambitious reductions conditional on finance. Initiatives like the Ten Billion Tree Tsunami and Living Indus aim at restoration.
Post-2022, international pledges exceeded $10 billion, though delivery lags. The Loss and Damage Fund, operationalized at COP27-28, offers hope, but gaps persist.
Conclusion
Global environmental issues impose disproportionate burdens on Pakistan, undermining development and exacerbating inequality. With vulnerability rankings highlighting urgency, concerted national reforms, resilient infrastructure, sustainable agriculture, and robust international support are imperative. Bridging finance gaps and honoring Paris Agreement commitments could forge a resilient path forward.
The author is PhD in Sociology. Currently she is engaged with HANDS — Institute of Development Studies. She is counsel students as well as write articles on diversified topics.